This is a working overview of GW501516, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-03-05 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
Preclinical research reported that GW501516 increased running endurance in mice and improved lipid profiles in some animal species. Early human trials explored effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose handling, but the program was discontinued. Published human data are sparse and do not establish efficacy for any condition. Studies also examined PPAR delta in cancer biology, with conflicting findings across models. The relationship between receptor activation, tissue context, and disease risk remains an active area of investigation.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the usual matrix, and detection can occur after the parent compound has cleared from blood. The exact detection window depends on dose, formulation, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Because the compound is prohibited at all times, athletes are subject to testing in and out of competition. Analytical methods continue to improve as new metabolites and designer analogs are characterized.
GW501516 acts as a ligand for PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation of this receptor in skeletal muscle shifts metabolism toward fat burning in animal models. The compound does not burn fat directly; it changes gene expression over hours to days. Researchers study it to understand metabolic flexibility and exercise adaptation. Effects observed in rodents are not automatically expected in humans.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516; GW-1516; endurobol | GW501516 is the research code |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Established chemical formula |
| Molar mass | 453.5 g/mol | Calculated from the formula |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport; not approved as medicine | Status varies by country |
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Activation of PPARδ changes transcription of genes involved in fatty acid transport, mitochondrial function, and skeletal muscle fuel preference. In rodent studies, pharmacological PPARδ activation was associated with increased endurance and altered body composition. These findings generated interest in performance enhancement, but species differences and study designs limit direct extrapolation to humans. Small human trials were conducted in the 2000s and later discontinued. The extent to which cardarine produces similar metabolic or performance effects in people remains an open question.
The compound is typically described as a laboratory compound rather than a therapeutic product. Published reports have explored its role in lipid disorders, insulin sensitivity, and exercise metabolism, yet no major drug regulator has approved it for medical use. Commercial samples sold under the cardarine name may vary in purity and identity. Analytical confirmation is therefore necessary when the material is discussed in scientific or regulatory contexts. Its classification as a prohibited substance in sport further shapes how it is studied and reported.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
Because cardarine is not an approved medicine, no pharmacopeial monograph defines its identity, purity, or storage requirements. Laboratories typically rely on in-house methods and reference standards when testing materials labeled as GW501516. Certificates of analysis may report purity and identity for a specific batch, but their scope varies and they do not guarantee safety or legal status. Independent verification can include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and elemental analysis. The distinction between research chemical labeling and human use is significant because quality standards and oversight differ.
Cardarine can be detected in biological samples and product materials using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method separates compounds by chromatography and identifies them by mass-to-charge transitions, allowing low-level detection in urine or blood. Sample preparation often involves enzymatic hydrolysis, solid-phase extraction, or protein precipitation. Certified reference materials and isotope-labeled internal standards improve quantification. Detection windows depend on metabolism, matrix, and assay sensitivity, so no single universal window applies.
Regulatory treatment of cardarine differs by context and jurisdiction. In competitive sport, the World Anti-Doping Agency lists PPARδ agonists, including GW501516, as prohibited at all times. Outside sport, it lacks approval as a prescription medicine in major drug markets, and products sold for human consumption may be treated as unapproved drugs. Some countries also restrict importation or sale through general consumer protection and medicines laws. These classifications affect availability, testing, and legal risk without establishing therapeutic value.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression related to fatty acid oxidation, glucose homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. GW501516 binds to this receptor with high affinity and activates downstream signaling in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Animal studies reported increased endurance and altered fuel preference, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. The precise relationship between receptor activation and observed physiological changes is still an area of active investigation. Researchers have also examined whether the compound affects inflammation or cell proliferation. No approved therapeutic indication exists for cardarine.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
== External links == CD49b+antigen at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Human Integrin alpha 2 "ITGA2". Cell Migration Gateway.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) Human ITGA2 genome location and ITGA2 gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser.
Collagen alpha-1(V) chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the COL5A1 gene. This gene encodes an alpha chain for one of the low abundance fibrillar collagens. Fibrillar collagen molecules are trimers that can be composed of one or more types of alpha chains. Type V collagen is found in tissues containing type I collagen and appears to regulate the assembly of heterotypic fibers composed of both type I and type V collagen. This gene product is closely related to type XI collagen and it is possible that the collagen chains of types V and XI constitute a single collagen type with tissue-specific chain combinations. Mutations in this gene are associated with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, types I and II.
== Experimental chemistry == Flerovium's chemistry has been experimentally investigated, though studies so far are not conclusive. Flerovium's volatility has been measured through interactions with a gold surface, indicating that the volatility of flerovium was comparable to that of mercury and astatine. This volatile behavior was not expected for a usual group 14 metal. In experiments in 2012 at GSI, flerovium's chemistry was found to be more metallic than noble-gas-like. Jens Volker Kratz and Christoph Düllmann specifically named copernicium and flerovium as being in a new category of "volatile metals"; Kratz even speculated that they might be gases at standard temperature and pressure. These "volatile metals", as a category, were expected to fall between normal metals and noble gases in terms of adsorption properties. Interactions of flerovium and copernicium with gold were about the same. Further studies showed that flerovium was more reactive than copernicium, in contradiction to previous experiments and predictions.
Phenformin is an antidiabetic drug from the biguanide class. It was marketed as DBI by Ciba-Geigy, but was withdrawn from most markets in the late 1970s due to a high risk of lactic acidosis, which was fatal in 50% of cases. Phenformin was developed in 1957 by Ungar, Freedman and Seymour Shapiro, working for the U.S. Vitamin Corporation. Clinical trials begun in 1958 showed it to be effective, but with gastrointestinal side effects.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Ciskei – general information African Studies Quarterly South African history site WHKMLA site Creation of tribalism in Ciskei Ciskei International Airways CV-990 Video showing a GIS time animation of the assembly of Ciskei
=== Binding site === Advances in the field of recombinant protein engineering and expression, protein purification, NMR, X-ray crystallography and computational chemistry have improved the skills of drug designers to use data that have been gathered on the three-dimensional structures of protein ligand complexes. Most bacterial species have various types of PBP which differ in various ways such as enzymatic function, molecular weight and the affinity for β-lactam antibiotics. There are two types of enzymes that are particularly interesting with regard to the binding site of β-lactams: PBP and β-lactamases. Target alterations in the binding site of PBP have led to high-level resistance of β-lactams among bacteria like staphylococci, enterococci and pneumococci. For example, the binding site of PBP2 in Neisseria gonorrhoeae has been structurally determined and has three sequence motifs that can be seen in nearly all β-lactam interacting enzymes:
== Release and promotion == III was released digitally on November 7, 2012, in the United States, and the CD was released on November 8 in Australia, Canada, and the United States. The album's first two singles, "Plague" and "Wrath of God", were made available for free download on the duo's SoundCloud page on July 25 and September 26, 2012, respectively. The accompanying music video for "Plague" debuted on September 24, 2012, and uses footage from Andrzej Żuławski's 1981 film Possession. "Affection" was released as the album's third single on October 31, 2012. The music video for "Affection" premiered on April 26, 2013, and was filmed on the duo's South American tour. "Violent Youth" premiered on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show on November 1, 2012. A music video for "Sad Eyes", shot in Berlin and Toronto, was released on January 20, 2013. On July 26, 2012, Crystal Castles announced a North American tour with Health and Kontravoid in support of the album, as well as festivals appearances in Europe and Australia, starting on August 9, 2012, and ending on January 28, 2013. In November 2012, the band performed six dates in the United Kingdom. Additional dates across Europe, Oceania, North America, and South America were announced on October 17, 2012, and January 9, 2013. III is The Last Album to Feature Alice Glass, along with the current Roman numeral pattern
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Autotransporter proteins are outer membrane or secreted proteins found in a broad variety of Gram-negative bacteria. These proteins contain three structural motifs: a signal sequence, a passenger domain located at the N-terminal, and a translocator or autotransporter domain located at the C-terminal, forming a beta barrel structure. These structures promote the protein self-transport. Autotransporter proteins are usually related to virulence functions. This fact, their interaction with host cells and the broad occurrence of autotransporter encoding genes, bring up the possibility to represent therapeutic targets for the design of vaccines against Gram-negative pathogens. Two of the families in which the MEROPS database classifies asparagine peptide lyases are autotransporter proteins, families N4 and N6. Family N4 includes secreted virulence factors, or autotransporters, from enterobacteria. Their only proteolytic activity is releasing the virulence factor from the precursor, enabling it to be secreted. The active site residues in family N4 asparagine peptide lyases are N1100, Y1227, E1249 and R1282. Family N6 includes autoprocessing endopeptidases involved in type III protein secretion system, in which autoproteolysis is essential for mediating the secretion of proteins. Type III secretion system secretes proteins directly into host cells by an injectisome, a hollow tubular structure that penetrates into the host cell. Secreted proteins can pass through the injectisome into the host cell cytoplasm.
== Treatment == There is no standard medical or surgical treatment for acrocyanosis, and treatment, other than reassurance and avoidance of cold, is usually unnecessary. The patient is reassured that no serious illness is present. A sympathectomy would alleviate the cyanosis by disrupting the fibers of the sympathetic nervous system to the area. However, such an extreme procedure would rarely be appropriate. Treatment with vasoactive drugs is not recommended but traditionally is mentioned as optional. However, there is little, if any, empirical evidence that vasoactive drugs (α-adrenergic blocking agents or calcium channel blockers) are effective.
Posho or kawunga—called ugali in Kenya, it is usually made from maize but also other starches; regional names include kwon. Ugandan expatriates make posho from cornmeal, masa harina or grits. Kwon is a type of ugali made from millet (called kalo in western Uganda), but in other regions like eastern Uganda they include cassava flour. Groundnuts (peanuts)—groundnuts are a vital staple and groundnut sauce is extremely common in Ugandan cuisine. Groundnuts are eaten plain or mixed with smoked fish, smoked meat or mushrooms, and can also be mixed with greens such as borr. Sim-sim (sesame)—a staple particularly in the north, roasted sesame paste is mixed into a stew of beans or greens and served as a side dish, though sesame paste may also be served as a condiment; a candy is made from roasted sesame seeds with sugar or honey. Matooke—(green banana, not plantain) boiled or steamed (mashed) cooked in or served with a sauce of peanuts, beans, fresh fish or meat Luwombo—a traditional dish from Buganda, in which a stew of chicken, beef, mushrooms or fish is steamed in banana leaves Malewa—a traditional dish from eastern Uganda (Bugisu), made from bamboo shoots Kikomando—a chapati that is cut into pieces and served with fried beans
This shows that the female mealworm beetles consistently preferred males that invested significantly less in immune system recovery, and that males are not able to allocate resources simultaneously both to improving their health or, in this case, recovery of their immune system, and to increasing their sexual attractiveness.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.
No. It has no approved medical indication in any country. Regulatory agencies have not cleared it for treatment or prevention of any condition.
Early clinical work stopped after rodent carcinogenicity findings. Those animal results raised concerns about long-term human risk, although direct human evidence is lacking. The human relevance of the tumors remains an open scientific question.
It binds to and activates PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that controls expression of genes related to fatty acid oxidation. This mechanism can alter energy metabolism in animal models. It is not a direct stimulant or fat-burning enzyme.